Matter:
Is any substance which occupy space Have shape & also having some volume
State of matter:
# Solid :
Have definite shape and volume
# liquid :
Haven't definite shape but have volume
# gas:
Haven't have definite shape and volume
Solid characteristics:
1.) Solid are rigid, they possess definite volume and shape
2.) Inter molecule forces between them is so strong
3.) In solid atom, ion, molecule have fixed position
4.) Have high density as compare liquid & gas
5.)Inter molecular space between is less than that of liquid of gas
Classification of solid:
2 type
# CRYSTALLINE SOLID:
Are those in which particle are arranged in definite geomatric pattern in 3D space, Crystalline solid are have long range other
EX:- NaCl, S, Sugar, Diamond
# AMORPHOUS:
Substances whose particle are not arranged in regular pattern, Amorphous have short range order
- these have rigidity
- they have small structural units,
Ex :- glass which is denoted as super cooled liquid
Classification of crystalline solid:
Divided into 4 group upon nature of inter molecular force of attraction
1.) Molecular solid:
In this particle or atom are held together by H bond, London bond, Vander waals bonding, having short range forceand relatively weak bond etc
# Soft and volatile compound
# Act as insulator
# non polar molecular solid
# polar molecular solid
# H bonded molecule solid
Ex:-
Water :-
In this molecule they are tetrahedrally surrounded by four other water molecule so these have strong structure which large number H-bonding
# Character :-
- High Melting and boiling point
- Hard in nature
- Metallic bond is non directional
- Posseses high Conductivity of metal due to high mobile valency electron
- High Thermal conductivity of metal also due to presence of mobile electron
- They are soft, maleable and ductile
- Having bright metallic lustre
- High tensile strength
- Having some elasticity
Ex :-
* Nacl
* Cu
2.) IONIC SOLID:
Are the solid in which particle held by positive and negative charge ions. there bing is so strong due to electrostatic force, main character of this is that they have spherically geomatry
# Properties :-
- Having high lattice energy
_ High melting and boiling point
- THey are soluble solvent
- Act as insulator
- Arranged in regular pattern
Characteristics:
1.) They are hard and brittle
2.) Have high M.P and B.P
3.) High enthalphy of vapourization
4.) ionic solid soluble in water & in polar solvent
3.) METALLIC SOLID:
in this positive ions immersible in sea of electron
Characteristics:
# metal Crystal may be hard as well are soft
# good conductor is heat
# show lustre & show color in their solution
4.) COVALENT AND NETWORK SOLID:
In this particle are linked together by the covalent bonds, in covalent solid covalent bonding is present in directional manner, their lattice are present in this way that their stom are have same electronegativities
Characteristics:
# hard not less than that of ionic solid
# poor conductor of electricity
# high enthalpy of fusion
Example :
graphite(sp2 hybridization) :-
In this one single carbon atom attach three of carbon atom which form hexagonal network, distance between two carbon 142 picometer and adjacent layer distance is 340 pm, it is type of coonductor also which conduct electricity , low melting point
Diamond (sp3 hybridization) :-
In this one carbon elemnt bond with another four equidistant carbon atom , these carbon element interlocking are so strong that these become sooo strong in nature, distance between two carbon atom are about are 1.5 picometer, band angle id about 109.28 degree, these are also have insulator character, having high melting point
BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS
According this theory there are two bands present in solid are as
i) Valence bond :-
the band containing the outer or valence electron
ii) Conduction band:-
this band contain eithery partly or completely vacant orbital
# Silent feature :-
- all solid made up of giant molecule
- When their atom brought near there valence shell interact to form molecular orbit
- Gap between valence band and the conduction band called forbidden gap, these gap varies as in conductor (Low gap Difference) , insulator (High gap difference), Semi conductor (Gap between Insulator and conductor)
CRYSTAL LATTICE :-
a crystal is asolid substance having a definite geomatrical shape with flat faces and sharp edges, various type symmetry are possible are as :-
- Plane of symmetry :-
an imaginary plane by which, if a crystal is divided into two parts
- Axis of symmetry :-
An imaginary line through the crystal about which if the crytal is rotated through 360 degree
- Centre of symmetry :-
it is the point within the crystal such that any line drawn through it will intersect the surface the crystal at equal distance in both direction
UNIT CELL:
Smallest structure which can be repeated again & again to form a 3D structure called unit cell
SPACE LATTICE:
Regular arrangement of atom, ion, molecule form 3D structure
TYPE:
1.) Hexagonal
2.) Rectangular
3.) Rhombic
4.) Square
5.) ll`ogram
# Type of Crystal system
1.) Primitive unit cell
2.) Non primitive unit cell
# PRIMITIVE UNIT CELL :
In this type of unit cell atom only present at corners
Total no. Of atom are =1
# NON PRIMITIVE UNIT CELL:
1.) Face central unit cell (fcc)
In this type of unit cell atoms present at the corners and also present at the center of every face
Total no. Of atom are =4
2.) End centered unit cell (base center)
In this type of unit cell atom are present at the corners and also at the centre of body
Total no. Of cell =2
3.) Base central :
In this type atom present at the corner and at centre of two opposite base
Total no. Of cell = 2
Co ordination number:
No. Of nearest atom present toward a particular atom is called co ordination
Number
IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLID:
Any deviation from completely ordered arrangement of particle in a Crystal is called disorder or defect. This disorder is also called imperfection in solid
2 type:
1.) Electronic imperfection:
2.) Point imperfection or defect
Point defect in stoichmetric Crystal:
Stoichometric compounds are those compound in which no. Of positive ion and negative ions are exactly in the same ratio
Generally, 2 type
1.) Schotty defect:
Arise if some of the atoms or ions are missing from their normal lattice sites, the lattice site which are unoccupied
Condition :
1.) High co ordination number
2.) Ion are of similar size
# FRENKEL DEFECT=
Arises when anion is missing from its normal position & occupies interstitial site between lattice points
In this Crystal remain electrically neutral because anion & cation are in same ratio
Condition:
1.) Co ordination number is low
2.) Anion are much larger than cation
VOID IN CRYSTAL :-
Void are the vacant space which present in the close packed sphere of crystal lattice, they are of two type :-
i) Tetrahedral void :-
void which formed between spheres on a close packed plane and a fourth sphere on a adjacent plane fitting in the cavity space between the three spheres, their radius of void are 0.225r
ii) Octahedral void :-
void formed with three sphere on a close packed plane and three more spheres on a adjacent close packed plane, so that the centres of the three sphere in one plane are directly over the three triangular valleys surrounding, Void radius in this are 0.414r
LIQUID CRYSTAL :-
Are those liquid crystal are pire liquids which are turbid like crystal, anisotrophic overa definite range of temperature above their freezing point, liquid crystal are of three type :-
i) Soap like liquid crystal ;-
these on heating retain long range order yieldinh soap like phasr. they lose periodicity within the planes , but retain the orientation and arrangement in equispaced planes thus molecules in phase align themselves in layers, these are also called Smectic crystal
ii) Thread like liquid crystal :-
on heating lose their planar structure, but retain a parellel alignment, thus they retain orientation , but lose periodicity
iii) Cholesteric liquid crystal :-
they are optically active and posses the arrrangement of molecules similar to those in the nematic type , such liquid have very high optical rotation
Is any substance which occupy space Have shape & also having some volume
State of matter:
# Solid :
Have definite shape and volume
# liquid :
Haven't definite shape but have volume
# gas:
Haven't have definite shape and volume
Solid characteristics:
1.) Solid are rigid, they possess definite volume and shape
2.) Inter molecule forces between them is so strong
3.) In solid atom, ion, molecule have fixed position
4.) Have high density as compare liquid & gas
5.)Inter molecular space between is less than that of liquid of gas
Classification of solid:
2 type
# CRYSTALLINE SOLID:
Are those in which particle are arranged in definite geomatric pattern in 3D space, Crystalline solid are have long range other
EX:- NaCl, S, Sugar, Diamond
# AMORPHOUS:
Substances whose particle are not arranged in regular pattern, Amorphous have short range order
- these have rigidity
- they have small structural units,
Ex :- glass which is denoted as super cooled liquid
Classification of crystalline solid:
Divided into 4 group upon nature of inter molecular force of attraction
1.) Molecular solid:
In this particle or atom are held together by H bond, London bond, Vander waals bonding, having short range forceand relatively weak bond etc
# Soft and volatile compound
# Act as insulator
# non polar molecular solid
# polar molecular solid
# H bonded molecule solid
Ex:-
Water :-
In this molecule they are tetrahedrally surrounded by four other water molecule so these have strong structure which large number H-bonding
# Character :-
- High Melting and boiling point
- Hard in nature
- Metallic bond is non directional
- Posseses high Conductivity of metal due to high mobile valency electron
- High Thermal conductivity of metal also due to presence of mobile electron
- They are soft, maleable and ductile
- Having bright metallic lustre
- High tensile strength
- Having some elasticity
Ex :-
* Nacl
* Cu
2.) IONIC SOLID:
Are the solid in which particle held by positive and negative charge ions. there bing is so strong due to electrostatic force, main character of this is that they have spherically geomatry
# Properties :-
- Having high lattice energy
_ High melting and boiling point
- THey are soluble solvent
- Act as insulator
- Arranged in regular pattern
Characteristics:
1.) They are hard and brittle
2.) Have high M.P and B.P
3.) High enthalphy of vapourization
4.) ionic solid soluble in water & in polar solvent
3.) METALLIC SOLID:
in this positive ions immersible in sea of electron
Characteristics:
# metal Crystal may be hard as well are soft
# good conductor is heat
# show lustre & show color in their solution
4.) COVALENT AND NETWORK SOLID:
In this particle are linked together by the covalent bonds, in covalent solid covalent bonding is present in directional manner, their lattice are present in this way that their stom are have same electronegativities
Characteristics:
# hard not less than that of ionic solid
# poor conductor of electricity
# high enthalpy of fusion
Example :
graphite(sp2 hybridization) :-
In this one single carbon atom attach three of carbon atom which form hexagonal network, distance between two carbon 142 picometer and adjacent layer distance is 340 pm, it is type of coonductor also which conduct electricity , low melting point
Diamond (sp3 hybridization) :-
In this one carbon elemnt bond with another four equidistant carbon atom , these carbon element interlocking are so strong that these become sooo strong in nature, distance between two carbon atom are about are 1.5 picometer, band angle id about 109.28 degree, these are also have insulator character, having high melting point
BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS
According this theory there are two bands present in solid are as
i) Valence bond :-
the band containing the outer or valence electron
ii) Conduction band:-
this band contain eithery partly or completely vacant orbital
# Silent feature :-
- all solid made up of giant molecule
- When their atom brought near there valence shell interact to form molecular orbit
- Gap between valence band and the conduction band called forbidden gap, these gap varies as in conductor (Low gap Difference) , insulator (High gap difference), Semi conductor (Gap between Insulator and conductor)
CRYSTAL LATTICE :-
a crystal is asolid substance having a definite geomatrical shape with flat faces and sharp edges, various type symmetry are possible are as :-
- Plane of symmetry :-
an imaginary plane by which, if a crystal is divided into two parts
- Axis of symmetry :-
An imaginary line through the crystal about which if the crytal is rotated through 360 degree
- Centre of symmetry :-
it is the point within the crystal such that any line drawn through it will intersect the surface the crystal at equal distance in both direction
UNIT CELL:
Smallest structure which can be repeated again & again to form a 3D structure called unit cell
SPACE LATTICE:
Regular arrangement of atom, ion, molecule form 3D structure
TYPE:
1.) Hexagonal
2.) Rectangular
3.) Rhombic
4.) Square
5.) ll`ogram
# Type of Crystal system
1.) Primitive unit cell
2.) Non primitive unit cell
# PRIMITIVE UNIT CELL :
In this type of unit cell atom only present at corners
Total no. Of atom are =1
# NON PRIMITIVE UNIT CELL:
1.) Face central unit cell (fcc)
In this type of unit cell atoms present at the corners and also present at the center of every face
Total no. Of atom are =4
2.) End centered unit cell (base center)
In this type of unit cell atom are present at the corners and also at the centre of body
Total no. Of cell =2
3.) Base central :
In this type atom present at the corner and at centre of two opposite base
Total no. Of cell = 2
Co ordination number:
No. Of nearest atom present toward a particular atom is called co ordination
Number
IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLID:
Any deviation from completely ordered arrangement of particle in a Crystal is called disorder or defect. This disorder is also called imperfection in solid
2 type:
1.) Electronic imperfection:
2.) Point imperfection or defect
Point defect in stoichmetric Crystal:
Stoichometric compounds are those compound in which no. Of positive ion and negative ions are exactly in the same ratio
Generally, 2 type
1.) Schotty defect:
Arise if some of the atoms or ions are missing from their normal lattice sites, the lattice site which are unoccupied
Condition :
1.) High co ordination number
2.) Ion are of similar size
# FRENKEL DEFECT=
Arises when anion is missing from its normal position & occupies interstitial site between lattice points
In this Crystal remain electrically neutral because anion & cation are in same ratio
Condition:
1.) Co ordination number is low
2.) Anion are much larger than cation
VOID IN CRYSTAL :-
Void are the vacant space which present in the close packed sphere of crystal lattice, they are of two type :-
i) Tetrahedral void :-
void which formed between spheres on a close packed plane and a fourth sphere on a adjacent plane fitting in the cavity space between the three spheres, their radius of void are 0.225r
ii) Octahedral void :-
void formed with three sphere on a close packed plane and three more spheres on a adjacent close packed plane, so that the centres of the three sphere in one plane are directly over the three triangular valleys surrounding, Void radius in this are 0.414r
LIQUID CRYSTAL :-
Are those liquid crystal are pire liquids which are turbid like crystal, anisotrophic overa definite range of temperature above their freezing point, liquid crystal are of three type :-
i) Soap like liquid crystal ;-
these on heating retain long range order yieldinh soap like phasr. they lose periodicity within the planes , but retain the orientation and arrangement in equispaced planes thus molecules in phase align themselves in layers, these are also called Smectic crystal
ii) Thread like liquid crystal :-
on heating lose their planar structure, but retain a parellel alignment, thus they retain orientation , but lose periodicity
iii) Cholesteric liquid crystal :-
they are optically active and posses the arrrangement of molecules similar to those in the nematic type , such liquid have very high optical rotation
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